Empiricism champions experiential knowledge, prioritizing perceptions gleaned through the five senses over innate ideas. This idea evolved into various strands such as Phenomenalism, Positivism, Scientism, and Logical Positivism, each refining the core principle in distinct ways.Simple ustification:Proposition 1: Everything we know comes from what we see, hear, feel, taste, and smell.Proposition 2: Not everyone believes the same things naturally from birth.Conclusion: Relying on what we experience through our senses, rather than ideas we're born with, makes sense for understanding the world.

Empiricism

Rationalism argues that knowledge isn't gained through experience but through innate ideas or logical reasoning. This idea influences the creation of foundationalism, intuitionism, and trancendental idealism.Simple Justification:Proposition 1: We're born with some knowledge already in our minds.Proposition 2: We can figure out more by using our brains to think things through, not just by experiencing them. Conclusion: So, rationalism makes sense because it shows that our thinking and innate ideas are important for learning, not just what we see or feel.

Rationalism

Understand yourself and those around you.

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Theories of Knowledge Acquisition

Skepticism is a Hellenistic school of philosophy. It holds that one should refrain from making truth claims, and avoid the postulation of final truths. This is not necessarily quite the same as claiming that truth is impossible (but some thinkers argue abouy it). It is often also used to cover the position that there is no such thing as certainty in human knowledge.

Doctrine Of Scepticism

Gorgias claimed that nothing exists; or, if something does exist, then it cannot be known; or if something does exist and can be known, it cannot be communicated. Socrates claimed that he knew one and only one thing: that he knew nothing. Thus, rather than making assertions or opinions, he set about questioning people who claimed to have knowledge.Pyrrho advocated suspending judgment on all matters, arguing that certainty is unattainable and that embracing doubt leads to tranquility (ataraxia).

The Skeptics

Skepticism challenges the notion of absolute certainty, encouraging individuals to approach knowledge with doubt and humility, ultimately leading to a state of tranquility and open-mindedness.

Conclusion

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Skepticism

Altruism, or ethical altruism, is a moral philosophy that advocates for individuals to aid, serve, or benefit others, potentially at the expense of their own interests. Specifically, an action is considered morally right if its outcomes are more beneficial than harmful to everyone but the person performing the action.

Altruism

The term "altruism" (initially derived from the Latin "alter" meaning "other") was coined by Auguste Comte, the French founder of Positivism, in order to describe his ethical doctrine, which he summed up in the phrase: "Live for others". In more general terms, Altruism is selfless concern for the welfare of others (although its common usage does not necessarily entail any ethical obligation).

Etymology Of Altruism

Altruism is frequently viewed as a subset of consequentialism because it evaluates the ethical correctness of an action based on its beneficial consequences for others. While similar to utilitarianism, which advocates for actions that maximize positive outcomes for all of society, altruism specifically calls for actions that maximize benefits for everyone but the individual taking the action.

Philosophize

“If you can't feed a hundred people, then just feed one.”

Altruism promotes the well-being of others and can lead to a more cooperative and harmonious society by encouraging acts of kindness and support.

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History

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Argues that the mind is an independently existing substance - the mental does not have extension in space, and the material cannot think. This is the type of Dualism most famously defended by Descartes, and it is compatible with most theologies which claim that immortal souls occupy an independent "realm" of existence distinct from that of the physical world.

Substance Dualism (or Cartesian Dualism)

sserts that mental events are causally inert (i.e. have no physical consequences). Physical events can cause other physical events, and physical events can cause mental events, but mental events cannot cause anything, since they are just causally inert by-products of physical events which occur in the brain (i.e. epiphenomena) of the physical world. This doctrine was first formulated by Thomas Henry Huxley in the 19th Century, although based on Thomas Hobbes' much earlier Materialism theories.

Epiphenomenalism

Argues that more than one predicate (how we describe the subject of a proposition) is required to make sense of the world, and that the psychological experiences we go through cannot be redescribed in terms of (or reduced to) physical predicates of natural languages.

Predicate Dualism

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3 Dualist schools of thought

Knowledge is the awareness and understanding of particular aspects of reality. It is the clear, lucid information gained through the process of reason applied to reality. The traditional approach is that knowledge requires three necessary and sufficient conditions, so that knowledge can then be defined as "justified true belief".

Knowledge

The property of sentences, assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions that are said, in ordinary discourse, to agree with the facts or to state what is the case.false propositions cannot be known - for something to count as knowledge, it must actually be true. As Aristotle famously (but rather confusingly) expressed it: "To say of something which is that it is not, or to say of something which is not that it is, is false. However, to say of something which is that it is, or of something which is not that it is not, is true."

Truth

A subjective attitude that a proposition is true or a state of affairs is the case. One cannot know something that one doesn't even believe in, the statement "I know x, but I don't believe that x is true" is contradictory.

Beliefs

is the right standing of a person’s beliefs with respect to knowledge, though there is some disagreement about what that means precisely. Some argue that right standing refers to whether the beliefs are more likely to be true. Others argue that it refers to whether they are more likely to be knowledge. Still others argue that it refers to whether those beliefs were formed or are held in a responsible or virtuous manner.

Justification

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What is Knowledge

The term "hedonism" is derived from the Greek "hedone" meaning simply "pleasure". In common language, Hedonism has come to mean devotion to pleasure as a way of life, especially to the pleasures of the senses, and is synonymous with sensualism, libertinism, debauchery and dissipation.

Term

Hedonism is the philosophy that pleasure is the most important pursuit of mankind, and the only thing that is good for an individual. Hedonists, therefore, strive to maximize their total pleasure (the net of any pleasure less any pain or suffering). They believe that pleasure is the only good in life, and pain is the only evil, and our life's goal should be to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

Psychological Hedonism is the view that humans are psychologically constructed in such a way that we exclusively desire pleasure. Ethical Hedonism, on the other hand, is the view that our fundamental moral obligation is to maximize pleasure or happiness. It is the normative claim that we should always act so as to produce our own pleasure.

The Paradox of Hedonism (also called the Pleasure Paradox), points out that pleasure and happiness are strange phenomena that do not obey normal principles, in that they cannot be acquired directly, only indirectly and we often fail to attain pleasures if we deliberately seek them.

The Paradox

Hedonism usually pre-supposes an individualist stance, and is associated with Egoism (the claim that individuals should always seek their own good in all things). Epicureanism is a more moderate approach (which still seeks to maximize happiness, but which defines happiness more as a state of tranquillity than pleasure). A similar but more altruistic approach results in Utilitarianism, the position that the moral worth of any action is determined by its contribution to overall utility in maximizing happiness or pleasure as summed among all people.

Stance

HEDONISM

Atomism is a Pre-Socratic school of thought from ancient Greece, established in the late 5th Century B.C. by Leucippus of Miletus (5th Century B.C.) and his more famous student, Democritus. It teaches that the hidden substance in all physical objects consists of different arrangements of atoms and void

Atomism

No writings by the movement's founder, Leucippus, have survived, and we have just a few fragments of the writings of Democritus in secondhand reports, sometimes unreliable or conflicting. Much of the best evidence is that reported by Aristotle in his criticisms of Atomism, which he regarded as an important rival current in natural philosophy.

Writings

philosopher Lucretius (c. 99 - 55 B.C.) whose "On the Nature of Things" was one of the definitive works of Epicureanism, but also of Atomism. It argues that the universe and all substance is eternal, composed of atoms moving in an infinite void and nothing else, and that the human soul also consists of minute atoms that dissipate into smoke when a person dies.

Of Democritus' and Epicurus' followers

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543) and Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642), who himself converted to Atomism when he found that his corpuscular theory of matter and his experiments with falling bodies and inclined planes contradicted the mainstream Aristotelian theories. The English philosophers Sir Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes were both confirmed Atomists for a time, as was Giordano Bruno (1548 - 1600) in Italy.

Famous Atomist (Scientist And Philosopher

The main figures in the rebirth of Atomism were the French philosophers René Descartes and Pierre Gassendi (1592 - 1655), and the Irish philosopher and scientist Robert Boyle (1627 - 1691).

The Revival

Descartes’ mechanical philosophy of corpuscularism (that everything physical in the universe is made of tiny “corpuscles” of matter, and that sensations, such as taste or temperature, are caused by the shape and size of tiny pieces of matter) had much in common with Atomism, and may be considered in some sense another version of it, although for Descartes there could be no void, and all matter was constantly swirling to prevent a void as corpuscles moved through other matter.

Descartes' Atomism

He formulated his atomistic conception of mechanical philosophy partly in response to Descartes, particularly opposing Descartes’ reductionist view that only purely mechanical explanations of physics are valid.

Gassendi's Atomism

Robert Boyle's form of Atomism, which came to be accepted by most English scientists, was essentially an amalgamation of the two French systems. He arrived at it after encountering problems reconciling Aristotelian physics with his chemistry experimentation.

Boyle's Atomism

hilosophical Atomism led to the development of early scientific atomic theory, modern science has shown that atoms in the chemical sense are actually composed of smaller particles (electrons, neutrons and protons), and that these in turn are composed of even more fundamental particles called quarks. Although the principle can still theoretically apply, there are few, if any, modern-day atomists.

ATOMISM

Kingside castling places the King away from the center and safer behind a rank of protected pawns; furthermore it’s a quicker move than Queenside castling since only two pieces have to be moved before.On the other hand, castling on the opponent’s opposite side may be very interesting to create more attacking opportunities.

Kingside castling is safer than Queenside castling

If your opponent is waiting too long to castle, try to keep the enemy King even longer in the center.One of the most common ways to do so is to control one of the squares serving as passage for the King (usually f1 or f8, when Kingside castling).Most of the times it’s worthwhile to sacrifice a pawn in order to keep the King in the center

Try to prevent the opponent from castling

The player, who has an advantage in space, enables greater mobility to friendly pieces and can, therefore, transfer pieces from one side to the other with more flexibility.rookOn the other hand, the player in a more restricted position finds it difficult to maneuver pieces, which might be fatal if they are requested to defend the King.

Dominate as much territory as possible

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3 General Chess principles (Part 4)

Since the Queen is a very powerful piece, it is also very vulnerable to the opponent’s constant attacks.Therefore, it’s convenient to place it behind a pawn, preferably on the second rank so that the first one is free for Rook development.

Place the Queen behind the line of friendly pawns during opening

Generally it’s a bad deal to trade a well-positioned piece for a bad-positioned one.When you trade one of your developed pieces for one of your opponent’s not developed ones, you waste time. The same is true if you trade a piece that has moved a lot for one that your opponent moved only once.

Avoid trading a developed piece for a not developed one

The King’s safety is one of the most important things to care about during opening and middlegame. The King in the center will always be very vulnerable to the opponent’s attacks, especially in open positions. Castling means placing your King comfortably behind a pawn blockade and allowing development of one of your Rooks. Then, the Rook may rapidly occupy an open or half-open file.

Castle as quickly as possible

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3 General Principle of Chess (Part 3)

Pawn moves should be restricted during opening, because the time involved in these moves could be applied to develop another piece.Generally, moving pawns is suitable when the player aims to open diagonals for the Queen or Bishops or occupy the center.

Don’t make unnecessary pawns moves during opening

A check that can easily be defended by the opponent is unnecessary.Most of the checks during opening can easily be defended by moves that favor development.

Don’t check if not necessary

An open position always favors the flock with more pieces in play and, therefore, should only be provoked by those with a developing advantage.pawn

Theories of Knowledge Acquisition

Skepticism

Altruism

3 Dualist schools of thought

What is Knowledge

Kyo